Medieval Era

An Overview of Medieval Era

The medieval era in India starts approximately with the rise of the Rajputs. The Rajputs were an image of feudalism and chivalry. Though they were devoted warriors, the Rajputs fought among themselves and weakened their empire. The medieval history of India is largely dominated by incidents of foreign rule and invasion due to lack of stability in Indian rulers. This was the main reason that attracted invaders from outside India to come here and establish their kingdoms. The Indian medeival history is full of such incidents where you find foreign rulers coming here and ruling India.

The weakening of the Rajputs attracted the Turks who invaded India on every given opportunity. The Turks were not just interested in India’s wealth but also wanted to establish their empires and take over other kingdoms. The ruler of Delhi and one of the bravest Rajput soldiers Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by the Turkish invader Mohammad Ghori. He captured Delhi and appointed one of the military slaves Qutub-ud-din Aibak as the in-charge. Qutub-ud-din Aibak started a series of new rulers and thus arose the Slave dynasty. This marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

After the Slave dynasty came the Khilji dynasty. The Khilji dynasty was marked by gruesome battles and capturing of power from one another. The last ruler of the Khilji dynasty was not an able ruler and was murdered which ended the Khilji dynasty. Then came the Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodhis who ruled Delhi one after the other in quick succession. After this, the first battle of Panipat took place which marked the end of the Lodhi dynasty and the start of the Mughal rule in India. Medieval India also saw the rise of a culture called Sikhism and was also influenced by Sufism. Medieval architecture was a blend of Hindu and Islamic styles of architectures.

Rajputs

During the 7th and 8th century emerged a new clan of people who came to be known as Rajputs. They basically belonged to the warrior class of people and were located in Rajasthan and some central parts of India. However there is conflict regarding the rise of the Rajputs and there are many theories that put forward different incidents that led to the rise of the Rajput empire. The royal Rajputs of Rajasthan ruled successfully over Rajasthan and Gujarat for a period of 500 years. Read further about the history of Rajasthan Rajputs.

Being essentially in the warrior class, the Rajputs had huge armies of soldiers. There were bodyguards and watchmen who were very loyal to their masters. In fact, the Rajputs were known for their loyalty and trustworthy nature. The Rajputs were skillful warriors and followed a strict code of conduct when it came to waging a battle and driving away an enemy. There are many tales and folklores about the bravery of the Rajputs. The Rajputs were God fearing people and were devoted to Vishnu, Rama and Sun God.

A very famous Rajput ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan who waged a fierce battle against Muhammad Ghauri around the 12th century. When the Mughals invaded some Rajput rulers converted to Islam, which then laid the foundation of one of the biggest pre-colonial empire in South East Asia. The Rajputs were known for their unique architectural wonders and built many palaces and forts in and around Rajasthan and Gujarat. The forts and temples they built then still stand strong and provide a glimpse of the royal heritage of the Rajputs.

Turkish Invasion

The Medieval Period in India starts with the Turkish invasion. With the death of Harshvardhana, an era of feudalism rose in India. There was a lot of political disheveling in the north India and everyone was too busy capturing small kingdoms than to take notice of the aggressive invasion of the Turks. The Turkish invasion in India took place around the 11th century with the Mahmud of Ghazni raiding the country all the way from Afghanistan. He gained his victory against the Hindushahi kings of Peshawar. The next targets were the Muslim rulers of Multan.

Mahmud of Ghazni plundered India 17 times in a short time span of around 25 years and looted India off its wealth and resources. The areas around Gujarat and Kannauj were rich and prosperous and were looted mercilessly by Mahmud. This wealth helped him consolidate his hold and power over northern India. He made many palaces and mosques with the looted wealth in Ghazni located in central Asia. After plundering India many times, he finally died in Ghazni in 1030 A.D.

The Rajput kings were fighting among themselves for the possession of princely states during the 11th and 12th centuries. They seized every slight opportunity to engage wars against each other. This was also the time when Prithviraj rose to power and married the daughter of the king Jaichand of Kannauj by abducting her from the middle of her wedding. At this time, Mohammed Ghori was planning to invade India and the Rajput king thought he just wanted to loot India and go back. Thus, he decided to become an ally of Mohammed Ghori and help him defeat Prithviraj.

But when he came to know that Ghori wanted to establish a kingdom here, he half heartedly joined Prithviraj along with other Rajput kings and together they were able to defeat Mohammed Ghori. But Prithviraj let him go when Ghori appealed to him. However, the very next year the Afghans launched another attack on Prithviraj and defeated him badly at the war. Ghori however, did not set Prithviraj free and the kingdoms of Prithviraj went in the hands of Qutub-ud-din. With the conquest of Mohammed Ghori, India saw for the first time a proper dynastic rule.

Bahamani Kingdom

 

The Bahamani kingdom in India extended from the northern Deccan region to the river Krishna. This empire was founded by Hasan Gangu who waged a battle against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and freed the Bahamani kingdom. He ruled under the title of Bahman Shah and was declared the founder of the Bahamani dynasty. This kingdom was in constant war with the Vijayanagar kingdom which was located to the south of the Bahamani kingdom. The Bahamani kingdom was founded around the year 1346. Read about the history of Bahamani kingdom.

One of the most notable rulers of the Bahamani kingdom was Firuz Shah Bahamani who waged three battles against the Vijayanagar Empire. He was a learned man who had the knowledge of numerous religious as well as natural sciences. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. Though he was a devout Muslim, the only vices he was extravagant on were drinking wine and listening to music. Firuz Shah was asked to give up his kingdom and throne for his brother Ahmed Shah I who was considered to be a saint because of his connection with the Sufi saint Gesu Daraz. He annexed the territories of Warangal.

With the invasion of Warangal, the balance of power in south of India changed to a large extent. The kingdom of the Bahamani extended and expanded its control rapidly. This was under the minister Mahmud Gawan. The nobles in the Bahamani kingdom were always causing problems by going against one another too often. They were broadly classified into two categories that is Deccanis (old comers) and the Afaquis (new comers). Mahmud Gawan was categorized as Afaqui and hence it was difficult for him to win the trust and confidence of the Deccanis. His policy of appeasement only made matters worse and could not stop both the parties from going against each other. Mahmud Gawan was executed at the age of seventy by Muhammad Shah of Deccan in the year 1482.

The chief economic activity in the Bahamani kingdom was agriculture and the main revenue of the state was produced in the form of agricultural products. The Bahamani kingdom flourished in architectural monuments. The best example would be the Gol Gumbaz, which is the largest dome in the world. Another famous monument is the Charminar located at Hyderabad. The Bahamani kingdom was like a cultural bridge between the north and south and the culture that developed during this time was a blend of both north and south styles and also had its own distinct styles. This style also influenced the Mughal culture.

Vijayanagar Empire

 

Vijayanagar Empire was an empire established in the southern state of Karnataka in India. It covered the entire Deccan region of Peninsular India. The Vijayanagar Empire was founded by a ruler named Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I around 1336. The Vijayanagar dynasty receives its name from the capital city of Vijayanagar. The ruins of this city surround the modern city of Hampi and are declared a World Heritage Site.

The Vijayanagar Empire was famous for its rich heritage and beautifully constructed monuments that were spread over Southern India. The rich cultural heritage of South India was the main inspiration for temple architectural styles. The construction style of Hindu temples was inspired from the blending of different faiths and languages. Local granite was used in building temples first in the Deccan region and then in the Dravidian regions. The rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire were admirers of fine arts and encouraged people to indulge themselves in music, dance and handicrafts.

Trade and commerce was carried on vigorously and this brought about new ideas and a multitude of changes in the kingdom. Irrigation and water management systems were enhanced and developed during the Vijayanagar dynasty. Languages like Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit developed and literature reached new heights. South Indian classical music known as Carnatic music developed tremendously and achieved its current form. Vijayanagar kingdom created an era where Hinduism was a unifying factor and went beyond all boundaries of language and beliefs.

The Vijayanagar Empire emerged as one of the most powerful kingdoms in the Peninsular India and ruled there for 200 years. The empire was so strong that four Muslim kingdoms had to come together to destroy this strong kingdom.

The Slave Dynasty

The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was succeeded by two more able rulers after which the slave dynasty vanished in no time due to lack of able rulers.

 

Qutub-ud-din Aibak

The first ruler of the slave dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who ruled from 1206 to 1210. He established his capital at two places, first at Lahore and then shifted it to Delhi. It was during his reign that the construction of the famous Qutub Minar was started. He was an able ruler and was very kind and generous with his people. Due to his good nature, he earned the title of “Lakh Baksh”, which means giver of thousands. He could rule for a very short time as he died in an accident in 1210. He was succeeded by his son Aram Shah but due to his incompetence, he was defeated in just one year by Iltumish.

Iltumish

After Aram Shah, the next able ruler was Iltumish. He ruled from 1211 to 1236. Under his strong governance, the slave dynasty was able to find a strong footing and establish itself as an important kingdom. The army was organized efficiently under Iltumish and he also introduced a coin currency known as Tanka. It was in his reign that the construction of Qutub Minar was completed. After ruling successfully for a period of 25 years, he died, but nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as the heir to the throne. She was an able ruler, but since she was a woman, she faced stern opposition from nobles who got her murdered.

Ghiyasuddin Balban

The last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He ruled from 1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and he paid much attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively to use weapons and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak. This is what helped them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286 and after him the slave dynasty collapsed.

Khilji Dynasty

After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the Sultanate became even more fragile and instable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy hatched by the latter. The Khilji dynasty is also known by the name of Khalji dynasty. The history of Khilji dynasty is marked by brutal wars and internal conflicts among the rulers. Read on about the history of the Khalji dynasty.

 

The next territory that Alauddin Khilji conquered was that of Gujarat. Around 1301 A.D, he captured Ranthambhor and murdered the Rajput Hamir Deva. Then, he killed Rana Rattan Singh and captured Chittor. By 1305, he had captured territories like Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi but couldn’t capture Bengal. He had conquered almost entire north India by the year 1311 and established his kingdom successfully. Read about the main Khilji dynasty rulers of India.

Jalal ud-din Firuz Khilji

The first Indian ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji, who ruled from 1290 – 1294. He invaded India and built his capital in Delhi, though he never really ruled from there. He constructed another capital at Kilokhri, and ruled from there for around 6 years. During the time Mongols attacked the country, Jalal-ud-din Khilji put up a brave front and smart negotiations made the Mongols depart. They came back however, five years later and attacked once again when his nephew ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was murdered by his own nephew when he was going to visit him in Kara.

Ala-ud-din Khilji

The second ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din Khilji, whose real name was Juna Khan. He ruled in India from 1296-1316. He was the nephew and son-in-law of the first Khilji ruler, Jalal-ud-din Khilji. He killed Jalal-ud-din Khilji and then announced himself as the ruler of Delhi. Ala-ud-din expanded his territory into the peninsular India within a short span of time. He died on January 1316 due to an acute health condition.

Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah

The third and last ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. He was the weakest ruler of all and during his reign, all taxes and penalties were abolished. He released all prisoners of war who were captured after waging gruesome battles. He was ultimately murdered by Khusru Khan and this ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

Tughlaq Dunasty

 

The Tughlaqs were basically of Turkish origin and the family was essentially Muslim. Around the year 1321, Ghazi Tughlaq ascended the throne and was given the title Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq (Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq). The Tughlaq dynasty was able to withhold its rule due to their strong allies like the Turks, Afghans and the Muslim warriors of south Asia. In the following lines, you shall find information about the history of Tughlaq dynasty and the major rulers of this dynasty. So read about the Tughluq Empire.

Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty in India. His real name was Ghazi Malik and he ruled from 1320 – 1325. He was the one who founded the city of Tughlaqabad outside Delhi. He waged a gruesome battle against Khusrao Khan, who killed the last Khilji ruler. His successful defense against the Mongols made him an able ruler and the founder of a dynasty in India. He conquered many areas including eastern portion of Bengal, a huge territory.

Mohammed bin Tughlaq

One of the most controversial rulers in India, Mohammed bin Tughlaq was the successor of Ghazi Tughlaq. The empire was spread and his rule grew. He was a brilliant person who had full command over mathematics and medicine. Yet, he was considered crazy by those who were there in his court. He was known to mete out very cruel and brutal punishments to people who were found guilty of even small mistakes. He shifted his capital from Delhi to a place in the outskirts known as Daulatabad which harmed his reputation amongst policy makers.

Feroz Shah Tughlaq

Feroz Shah Tughlaq was the successor of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq. Feroz Shah was a caring ruler unlike Mohammed bin Tughlaq. He made sure that people in his kingdom were happy and heard out their problems patiently. However, he was not militarily strong and could not sustain any sort of external attacks or aggression. Feroz Shah breathed his last in the year 1388 and after that the Tughlaq dynasty faded away in no time.

Sayyid Dynasty

After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power. They were essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from 1414 to 1451. The history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammed. The Sayyid Empire was formed amidst chaos when there was no figure of authority to control Delhi. The Sayyid dynasty had four basic rulers.

Khizr Khan

The founder of Sayyid dynasty was Khizr Khan and ruled from 1414-1421. He was known to be an able administrator and was very soft natured. He never resorted to bloody battles until it was absolutely necessary. It was his kind and docile nature that did not let him acquire many kingdoms during his reign. He defeated the Hindus of Daob, Kalithar and Chandwar since they had stopped paying tributes. Though he didn’t wage many battles during his reign, he was busy suppressing revolts in different parts of his kingdom. He could not come up with many great reforms but still he was greatly respected and loved by his subjects.

Mubarak Shah

After the death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Shah succeeded him on the throne. Like his father, Mubarak Shah was a wise man and an efficient ruler and remained on the throne from 1421-1434. He used his resources carefully and to the fullest. He was a devout Muslim and cared for his subjects. He was not quite able to possess many areas and kingdoms during his rule and kept suppressing revolts like his father. The city of Mubarakabad was founded by him in the year 1433.

Muhammad Shah

After the death of Mubarak Shah, his brother’s son Muhammad Shah succeeded him on the throne since Mubarak Shah did not have a son. Muhammad Shah ruled from 1434-1444. He was not an able ruler and misused his power and position of authority. He lost the trust and affection of his nobles and royal force who had freed him from his captors. He was lethargic and lazy ruler who just wanted to live his life in pleasure.

Alam Shah

After the death of Muhammad Shah in 1444, his son took over the throne under the title of Alam Shah. During the year 1447, he visited a place called Baduan and loved it so much that he decided to stay there forever. Till 1451, Delhi was ruled by Buhlul Lodhi. Alam Shah ruled Baduan till he died in the year 1478. with his death the Sayyid dynasty came to end.

Lodhi Dynasty

The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty. All three of them have been discussed in detail in the following lines. So read on about the Lodi dynasty history.

Buhlul Khan Lodi

Buhlul Khan Lodi (1451-1489) was the founder of the Lodi dynasty in India and the first Afghan ruler of Delhi. He was an Afghan noble who was a very brave soldier. Buhlul Khan seized the throne without much resistance from the then ruler, Alam Shah. His territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and northern Uttar Pradesh. During his reign in 1486, he appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur. Though he was an able ruler, he really couldn’t decide as to which son of his should succeed him as the heir to the throne.

Sikandar Lodi

After the death of Buhlul Khan, his second son succeeded him as the king. He was given the title of Sultan Sikander Shah. He was a dedicated ruler and made all efforts to expand his territories and strengthen his empire. His empire extended from Punjab to Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Alauddin Hussain Shah. He was the one who founded a new town where the modern day Agra stands. He was known to be a kind and generous ruler who cared for his subjects.

Ibrahim Lodhi

Ibrahim Lodhi was the son of Sikander who succeeded him after his death. Due to the demands of the nobles, his younger brother Jalal Khan was given a small share of the kingdom and was crowned the ruler of Jaunpur. However, Ibrahim’s men assassinated him soon and the kingdom came back to Ibrahim Lodhi. Ibrahim was known to be a very stern ruler and was not liked much by his subjects. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore Daulat Khan Lodhi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodhi was thus killed in a battle with Babur who was the founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. With the death of Ibrahim Lodhi, the Lodhi dynasty also came to an end.

The Mughal Empire

 

The Mughal Empire in India lasted from 1526 to 1858. The Mughal dynasty was established by able Muslim rulers who came from the present day Uzbekistan. The Mughal rule in India saw the country being united as one single unit and being administered under one single powerful ruler. During the Mughal period, art and architecture flourished and many beautiful monuments were constructed. The rulers were skillful warriors and admirers of art as well. You shall find more information about the famous Mogul rulers in our related sections.

Emperor Babur

Emperor Babur has been known as the founder of Mughal Empire in India. He was born on 14th February, 1483 at a town called Andijan that is located in the present day Uzbekistan. He belonged to the Mongol tribe that also embraced Turkish and Persian.

Emperor Humayun

Emperor Humayun was the second Mughal emperor who ruled India. He was named Nasiruddin Humayun and was born on 6th March, 1508. He was declared emperor in the year 1530 and ascended the throne at the age of 22. Emperor Humayun lost the kingdom as soon as he gained it as he was inexperienced in handling a large empire.

Akbar the Great

One of the greatest Mughal emperors to have ruled India was Akbar. He was popularly known as Akbar the Great because of his ability to rule efficiently and skillfully. Akbar was born on 23rd November, 1542 when his father Humayun and mother Hamida Bano were wandering in Iran.

Emperor Jahangir

Emperor Jahangir strengthened the Mughal Empire in India after his father Akbar. Jahangir was born on 31st August, 1569 and was named Nuruddin Salim Jahangir. Nuruddin has been derived from Arabic which means “light of faith”. Jahangir is a Persian word which means “world conqueror”.

Emperor Shah Jahan

Emperor Shah Jahan was the fifth Mughal ruler of India. He was born on 5th January, 1592 and it is said that during the reign of Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire prospered greatly like never before. The name Shah Jahan has been derived from Persian and it means “Emperor of the World”.

Emperor Aurangzeb

The sixth ruler of Mughal Empire was Emperor Aurangzeb. He was the son of emperor Shah Jahan had his wife Mumtaz Mahal. He was born on 3rd November, 1618. A devout Muslim, he strictly adhered to Islam and made sure that his kingdom followed the same. He was not religiously tolerant like his ancestors and made Islamic law the foundation of reign.

The Marartha Emire

 

The Maratha Empire was founded by the great warrior Chatrapati Shivaji during the year 1674. The Indian Maratha confederacy was established at the area around Pune from Bijapur. The Marathas came to power as the Mughals started to decline around the 17th century. The Marathas were in power from 1674 to 1818 and during the peak of the Maratha rule covered a territory of around 250 million acres. The Marathas were skillful warriors and were fiercely possessive about their land. Read about the history of Maratha Empire.

The Maratha nation was founded by Shivaji after many battles and guerilla warfare against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Though he was successful, he died in 1680 leaving the kingdom vulnerable to attacks and external aggression. The state of Maratha was ruled by Shahu, a grandson of Shivaji till 1749. During his reign, Shahu appointed a Peshwa or a prime minister who would act as the head of the state under certain emergency conditions in the kingdom. With time, the Peshwas became the real rulers of the empire while the successors of Shivaji were just nominal heads of state. The Maratha Empire was successful at keeping the British forces from attacking India for most of the 18th century.

The Marathas were essentially a Marathi speaking clan, hence the name Marathas. The rise of the Marathas was the main reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire. The rulers after Shivaji were able to withhold the Maratha empire together thus making it one of the strongest empires in India. Under the rule of Shivaji, the Maratha Empire saw its best days. The area under the Marathas during the reign of Shivaji included the Deccan, central India and some parts of present day Pakistan. After Shivaji, the Maratha Empire suffered greatly at the hands of the Afghans during the third battle of Panipat. Then came the British, who wanted to include the Maratha Empire (which was reduced to a regional kingdom) into the Bombay presidency.

The Marathas were adamant about their territory and waged three fierce battles against the British. The result was that the British annexed the territory that was ruled by the Peshwas. Thus, ended a great empire that had ruled major parts of central and southern India with a firm hand.

The Sikh Confederacy

The Sikh Confederacy (from 1716-1849) was a collection of small to medium sized independent sovereign, punjabi Sikh states, which were governed by barons, in Punjab. They were loosely politically linked but strongly bound in the cultural and religious spheres. Guru Gobind Singh before leaving for Nanded had divided responsibility of Punjab into separate regions (with borders). The records for these were kept at Amritsar and Lahore. As the Sikh Army (Dal Khalsa) grew new regions where administered and new Sikh barons came to the fore and the number of large misls eventually increased.

The Sikh Empire (from 1799-1849) was formed on the foundations of the Sikh Confederacy by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north (touching) the borders of Tibet, to the Indus River in the south and in the east to Himachal Pradesh. The main geographical footprint of the empire was Punjab (historical Punjab region). The religious population demography of the Sikh Empire was Muslim (80%), Hindu (10%) and Sikh (10%)[5]. The once strong empire was severely weakened after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839. The Empire ended, with the British Empire annexing its territory in 1849, after the Second Anglo-Sikh War.

The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the Sikh Confederacy, could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of Aurangzeb and the downfall of the Mughal Empire. The fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the Sikh army, known as the Dal Khalsa, to lead expeditions against the Mughals and Afghans. This led to a growth of the army, which was split into different confederations and then independent kingdoms. Each of these component armies were known as a misl, each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762-1799 Sikh rulers of their kingdoms appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Sikh Confederacy by the Coronation of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating the one unified political Empire.

After the Maharaja’s death the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the British Empire to launch the first series of Anglo-Sikh Wars. The Sikh Empire was finally annexed by the British Empire at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849.